Unit 9: Motivation 1 Expectancy-Value Theory Introduction Motivation is the process that gets us started, keeps us going, and helps us invest an adequate amount of mental effort to achieve our goals. Thus, our motivational processes seem to be intended to handle three types of challenges that are encountered often in education and other performance settings – actively starting something, persisting until it is finished, and investing enough mental effort to meet minimum performance standards. We must have adequate motivation to achieve learning goals and to transfer what we have learned and apply it appropriately. Many learning problems are caused by a lack of motivation rather than a lack of ability or poor instruction. The first type of motivation problem we will consider, a delay in actively pursuing a goal, is sometimes caused by our resistance to getting started and/or the difficulty we experience when converting our “good intentions” to do something into active work towards a goal. This situation is often called “active choice” and it involves doing something new for the first time. The second type of problem addressed by motivation is our need to persist at a goal once we have actively started to work towards that goal. Once people begin to pursue a goal, they often become distracted and/or allow themselves to shift to less difficult and/or more attractive goals. This lack of persistence is sometimes called “procrastination” when avoiding an important goal goes on long enough to threaten the quality of the work we can do to achieve the goal before a deadline. Finally, if we actively work towards a goal and persist in the face of distractions, we can still experience the third type of motivation problem - the lack of adequate mental effort. In order to learn or to do anything new, we must invest mental energy. All new learning and all “cognitive work” requires mental effort. The next two units will present a model of these three problems, describe how to identify examples of the problems, and then will discuss the solutions or interventions that have been found in research to solve the problems in classrooms and work settings, in particular, the research on value, interest, self-efficacy, attributions, and goal orientation. We begin with the Expectancy-Value Theory. The Expectancy-Value Theory focuses attention on two fundamental motivational questions: “Can I do the task?” and “Do I want to do the task?” The first question illustrates the expectancy component. If students answer no to this question, then they will be unlikely to fully engage in the learning opportunities provided in school. But even if the answer to this question is yes, full and sustained engagement in school learning depends on the answer to the question “Do I want to do the task?” This question illustrates the value component of the model. If the answer to this question is no, then it is also unlikely that the students will engage the learning opportunities at school. It is critical that school environments provide students with the kinds of experiences that will allow them to answer yes to both of these questions. In examining expectancies for success, we will also revisit self-efficacy and the ways self-efficacy affects effort. We will review Albert Bandura’s (1986, 1997) Self-Efficacy Theory, differentiate it with outcome expectations in Expectancy-Value Theory, and explore why self-efficacy is a consistent predictor of behavioral outcomes. Learning Objectives For This Unit · Explain why motivation is necessary for learning. Why is it not enough for students to use effective learning strategies for remembering new information and applying it appropriately? · Describe the three indicators of motivation. · Describe the concepts of expectancy and value and explain how each are combined in the EVT model as principles to predict motivation and academic achievement. · Explain how self-efficacy, including being under- or over-confidence, affects effort and behavior. · Describe a variety of problems that can be solved with strategies derived from the expectancy value theory and self-efficacy theory. · Apply the results of motivation research and theory to identify (diagnose) and solve a variety of motivation problems in diverse settings. Learning Strategies For This Unit · View the recorded lecture. Write down questions about anything you do not understand. · Complete the readings in the order listed in the syllabus, writing down one or two sentences that synthesize the major ideas. In-Class Practice and Feedback · Practice scenarios · Application to individual gap analysis problems Advance Organizer for the Next Unit · Attribution theory · Goals and goal orientation theory · Bring your laptop to class for in-class motivation causes and solutions workshop